從句到段：段落的展開(kāi)

基本句法掌握之后，接下來(lái)就要訓(xùn)練段落寫作，這是因?yàn)槎温涫俏恼碌幕窘M成部分，要寫出好文章，必須在段落寫作上多下功夫。

段的基本組成是句子，好的段落應(yīng)該是該段中所有的句子都圍繞著一個(gè)主題展開(kāi)，且句與句之間應(yīng)該是緊密相連，形成統(tǒng)一的整體即unified1 and coherent。那么怎樣將一個(gè)段落展開(kāi)呢？下面介紹英語(yǔ)中幾種常用的方法。

(1)時(shí)間順序 按時(shí)間順序?qū)懽骶褪前凑帐挛锇l(fā)展在時(shí)間上的正常順序或先后順序展開(kāi)段落。在講述故事或回憶事件時(shí)，先發(fā)生的先寫，后發(fā)生的后寫。請(qǐng)看下面的例子：

My heart gave a leap when I heard the announcement that our train would soon arrive at its destination-Beijing. Like other passengers, I began to collect my things and put my mug, towel, atlas2, apples, and other things into my bag. To the tune3 of a beautiful song the train pulled into the station and gently stopped by a platform. I walked out of the train and was carried forward by the stream of people into an underground passage and then into a big hall. As I stepped out of the station, I was dazzled by the bright autumn skies of Beijing. Though I had been on the train for more the thirty hours and spent an sleepless4 night, I didn't feel tired at all, and I believed my days in this glorious city would be as sunny as the skies.

(2)空間順序 按空間順序組織材料通常用于描述一個(gè)地方、事情或人物外貌等。其文章內(nèi)容應(yīng)按照由近及遠(yuǎn)、由遠(yuǎn)及近、自下而上、自上而下、按順時(shí)針?lè)较蚧蚰鏁r(shí)針?lè)较蚺帕校纾?/P>

In the middle of the rectangular-shaped courtyard stood three magnolia trees(), all in full bloom. A little girl was hoping among them, now gazing at a bud, now collecting fallen petals5. Under one of the trees stood her parents, who, while keeping an eye on her, were examining the snow white blossoms with great interest and admiration6. In front of another tree a young couple, fresh and bright as the flowers, were posing for a picture. At the end of the courtyard a group of youngsters had gathered behind an artist painting a flourishing limb, which looked so charming and real that a boy stooped to sniff7 at a half-open flower. At the opposite end a few elderly men and women stood admiring the leafless flowering trees and the people looking at them.

(3)列舉法 通過(guò)列舉一系列的論據(jù) 對(duì)主題句中的論點(diǎn)進(jìn)行廣泛、全面的陳述或解釋，列舉的順序可按照所列各點(diǎn)的內(nèi)容的相對(duì)重要性、時(shí)間、空間來(lái)排列，例如：

The Other Side of City Life

In the eyes of many people, city life is attractive with all its advantages and convenience, yet they don't see the other side of the picture. First, with the expansion of the city, housing has become a serious problem for city people. Then, there is the problem of pollution: harmful gases from vehicles and poisonous water from factories pollute our surroundings; noise continually disturbs your peace and rest and drives you mad. Thirdly, modern city life puts a high pressure upon people; you have to hurry to and from work; you have to dodge8 in so as to avoid bumping into the flood of people, bicycles, cars, buses…; all day long you are under great stress. Fourthly, big cities also cause some social problems. Of which high crime rate is the most serious one. People are justifiably9 in fear of becoming victims of burglary, robbery, murder and other crimes at any time. They should find some ways to cope with all these problems.

(4)舉例法 在主題句中簡(jiǎn)要、概括地說(shuō)明一個(gè)段落的主題思想之后，可以用具體的、生動(dòng)的事例來(lái)支撐論證主題，向目標(biāo)讀者展示并使他們具體感受主題句中尚未展開(kāi)的內(nèi)容和細(xì)節(jié)，例如：

This term several useful and interesting courses have been offered. An Introduction to European Culture, for instance, gives us a lot of background knowledge of the history of European philosophy, literature, and arts. From time to time we see slide shows of famous paintings and hear tapes of famous pieces of music, and they make the lectures all the more interesting. American Society and Culture is another course that attracts a large audience. The teacher, who visited the United States not long ago, discusses new trends and changes in American life as well as American history and traditions. We like these and other courses very much, because they help us not only to improve our English but also to broaden our vision.

(5)比較和對(duì)比 比較(comparison)主要是指出兩個(gè)或兩個(gè)以上不同種類的事物的共同點(diǎn)或相似之處，如人物、地點(diǎn)、事物、思想、觀點(diǎn)等。對(duì)照(contrast)主要是指出它們的不同點(diǎn)。相同的或類似的特征可以組成比較，不同的特征則可以組成對(duì)照。不僅如此，比較和對(duì)比常常同時(shí)使用，這是因?yàn)楸容^中往往隱含著對(duì)比。

比較和對(duì)比常有兩種形式，即整體比較和對(duì)比(block comparison and contrast)與逐項(xiàng)比較(alternating comparison)，例如：

Although Ulysses S. Grant and Robert E. Lee were fierce adversaries10 during the Civil War, their lives, both military and nonmilitary, has a great deal in common. Grant descended11 from a family whose members participated in the American Revolution. He received his commission of second lieutenant12 from West Point and served in the Spanish-American War. He was later summoned by President Lincoln to assume command of the Union Forces during the Civil War. After the Civil War, Grant suffered financial problems and was forced to declare bankruptcy13. Lee also descended from a family which engaged in the American Revolution. He, too, received his commission from West Point and later fought in Mexico during the Spanish-American War. His fame as a military strategist during the Civil War, when he was the commander of the Confederate armies, is well known. Although it is not always pointed14 out by historians he, like Grant, had financial difficulties after the civil War and was compelled to declare bankruptcy. By securing a post as president of Washington College, he was able to avoid additional poverty.(整體比較)

The same qualities that make people good houseguests make them good hospital patients. Good houseguests can expect a reasonable amount of service and effort on their behalf, and hospital patients can also. Guests have to adjust to what is for them a change, and certainly hospital patients must do the same. No one appreciates a complaining, unpleasant, unappreciative house guest, and the hospital staff is no exception. Hose guests who expect vast changes to be made for their benefit are not popular for long. Certainly nurses and other personnel with their routines feel the same way about patients in their care. Just as house guests must make adjustments to enjoy their visits, so patients must make adjustments to make their stays reasonably pleasant and satisfying under the circumstances.(逐項(xiàng)比較)

(6)原因和結(jié)果 因果分析是常用的拓展段落的方法之一，一定要注意推理的邏輯性因果關(guān)系必須表達(dá)清楚，不能因果混淆，更不能因果倒置，要避免牽強(qiáng)附會(huì)和循環(huán)論證。一個(gè)原因可能造成一個(gè)或多個(gè)結(jié)果，也可能在一大段文章中涉及到一連串因果關(guān)系。一個(gè)結(jié)果也可能由多種原因所引起，通常先寫結(jié)果，后寫多種原因；但也可先寫原因后寫結(jié)果。另外，如果喲啊強(qiáng)調(diào)原因或結(jié)果，可用倒裝或強(qiáng)調(diào)句型加以突出。例如：

The surge of demand for oil will soon begin to send shock waves through the American economy and transportation system. The impact of these tremors15 can already be anticipated: to the consumer they signal the end of a long love affair with the car, and to Detroit they offer an early warning that its 1985 growth aims are dangerously unrealistic. Unless we exercise foresight16 and devise growth-limits policies for the auto17 industry, events will thrust us into a crisis that will lead to a substantial erosion of domestic oil supply as well as the independence it provides us with, and a level of petroleum18 imports that could cost as much as $20 to $30 billion per year. Moreover, we would still be depleting19 our remaining oil reserves at an unacceptable rate, and scrambling20 for petroleum substitutes, with enormous potential damage to the environment.

(7)定義法 有時(shí)候?yàn)榱吮苊饣煜蛘`解，我們必須對(duì)一個(gè)詞、一條術(shù)語(yǔ)或諺語(yǔ)、一個(gè)概念通過(guò)下定義加以說(shuō)明、解釋。通常有三種方法下定定義：給出同義詞、用一個(gè)帶有定語(yǔ)從句的復(fù)合句或用一整段文章，而以第三種方法最為常用。1997年1月份四級(jí)考試的作文Practice Makes Perfect就是一篇極為典型的定義型文章。再看下面的例子：

A "liberated21 woman" is simply a woman who controls her own life, rather than allowing it to be controlled by other people, traditions, or expectations. A "liberated woman" can be found pursuing any line of work, including housework, or no work at all. She may or may not be married; she may or may not have born children. She may belong to any race; she may have attained22 any age. She need have only one trait in common with her "liberated sisters": she makes her own choices, whether they be the colors on her walls or the advanced degrees she seeks. She acts of her own volition23, responsible to herself, and not out of fear of what her mother, lover, or neighbor might say.

(8)分類法 所謂"分類"就是根據(jù)人物和事物的特征將他們/它們分別歸入各自不同的范疇。在寫這一類段落時(shí)，一定要抓住各個(gè)類別的典型特征，不要異類相串，混淆起來(lái)。例如：

According to Xiao Li, the fifteen students of his class fall into three groups. Seven of them work hard and study well. They always get good marks in examinations and are often praised by the teachers. Li calls them "good students". The monitor, the secretary of the Youth League branch, and the captain of the class volleyball team, are quick in finding out what their fellow students are interested in or what they should do as a collective. They always organize proper activities at the proper time, so Li calls them "good organizers". Four other students are very kind to their classmates, always ready to lend them a helping24 hand. They help to clean the classroom and the corridor even when they are not on duty. Li says that they are "good fellows". "What about yourself?" someone asks him. "I'm a group by myself-a good observer."

從段到篇：四種體裁

掌握了前面八種段落展開(kāi)的"天龍八部"，在面對(duì)任何級(jí)別的英語(yǔ)考試的作文時(shí)，相信大家都可以從容落筆，應(yīng)付如裕。

不過(guò)，大家仍然要謀篇布局，從篇章的角度對(duì)自己要寫的內(nèi)容作宏觀的整體上的把握，這就要求大家區(qū)分各種體裁，以采用不同的方法去應(yīng)對(duì)。英語(yǔ)文章的體裁可分為四類，即：

(1)記敘文(narration)

(2)描述文(description)

(3)說(shuō)明文(exposition)

(4)議論文(argumentation)

和中文無(wú)異。限于篇幅，在此就不一一舉例詳細(xì)論述，只說(shuō)一下寫作要領(lǐng)。

先說(shuō)記敘文。所謂narration就是敘述一件事或一連串事件，像四級(jí)曾經(jīng)考過(guò)的A Morning Walk(晨間漫步)即是一例。在寫這類作文時(shí)，要注意以下幾點(diǎn)：首先，在一開(kāi)始就要設(shè)定時(shí)間、地點(diǎn)、人物，一定要交代清楚；其次，在講述發(fā)生的事件本身時(shí)，要選取一些關(guān)鍵的細(xì)節(jié)，不要漫無(wú)邊際或不著邊際，而組織那些素材一般采用"時(shí)間順序"亦即先發(fā)生的先寫，后發(fā)生的后寫，或用倒敘法，先講結(jié)局，再?gòu)念^描述經(jīng)過(guò)。另外，要注意人稱、時(shí)代的一致性。

再看描述型文章。所謂description就是用文字對(duì)一個(gè)人、一個(gè)地方、一件物體或一個(gè)場(chǎng)景進(jìn)行描繪。在描述自己的印象時(shí)，一定要盡量選取那些有助于表現(xiàn)人物、場(chǎng)景的典型特征和突出特點(diǎn)，剔除那些枝蔓的零碎的細(xì)節(jié)。只有這樣，才能使所描述的內(nèi)容呼之欲出、躍然紙上，具有極大的表現(xiàn)力。

再談?wù)務(wù)f明文。這是四級(jí)考試中出現(xiàn)最為頻繁的體裁，無(wú)論是A or B、A and B，還是Why to do、How to do, 或是圖表型作文，都可歸入此類。如果說(shuō)描述文主要涉及外表和感受，記敘文主要涉及事件和經(jīng)歷，那么說(shuō)明文則主要是關(guān)于過(guò)程和關(guān)系。舉例來(lái)說(shuō)吧，我們面前有一件物體，如果要對(duì)其外觀進(jìn)行描寫，我們就要寫成描述型的作文，如果要解釋它是如何制作的，又是如何使用的，那就必須寫成說(shuō)明文；我們可以講述一個(gè)歷史事件，到底發(fā)生了什么，何時(shí)何地發(fā)生，都有誰(shuí)參與其中，那就是敘述，而要討論該事件的前因后果，它的本質(zhì)又是什么，以及在歷史長(zhǎng)河中的深遠(yuǎn)意義，那就必須寫成說(shuō)明文。前面所介紹的展開(kāi)段落的方法，如分類法、定義法、比較和對(duì)比、舉例法等等，大多數(shù)都可用于說(shuō)明文的寫作。

最后談?wù)勛h論文。說(shuō)明文是一種以闡釋和解說(shuō)為表達(dá)方式，用簡(jiǎn)潔、平實(shí)、通俗的語(yǔ)言，對(duì)事物的、事理的、人物的特性、情況、背景等所作的解釋和介紹的文體，而議論文則是以議論為主要表達(dá)方式，以邏輯思維為主要思維方式，對(duì)現(xiàn)實(shí)生活中的現(xiàn)象和原理說(shuō)長(zhǎng)道短、論是斥非、闡明自己的立場(chǎng)和觀點(diǎn)的一種文體，二者不可相混淆。說(shuō)明是讓人明白，而議論則要令人信服。論點(diǎn)要旗幟鮮明，論據(jù)要充分有力，論證要符合邏輯。就四級(jí)考試而言，真正意義上的議論文并不多見(jiàn)，即便是已經(jīng)考過(guò)的議論文，如幸運(yùn)數(shù)字、英語(yǔ)口試的必要性等，也較易處理，因此不再贅述。

需要強(qiáng)調(diào)的是，在四級(jí)考試中，往往是在同一篇文章中幾種體裁兼而有之，大家不要拘泥于教條，如2003年6月的車禍見(jiàn)證書，記述、描寫、說(shuō)明三種體裁都有所照顧，目的是要檢測(cè)同學(xué)們對(duì)于不同類型寫作的把握，全面地考察寫作教學(xué)的水平。

1 unified 40b03ccf3c2da88cc503272d1de3441c

(unify 的過(guò)去式和過(guò)去分詞)； 統(tǒng)一的； 統(tǒng)一標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的； 一元化的

參考例句：

The teacher unified the answer of her pupil with hers. 老師核對(duì)了學(xué)生的答案。

The First Emperor of Qin unified China in 221 B.C. 秦始皇于公元前221年統(tǒng)一中國(guó)。

2 atlas vOCy5

n.地圖冊(cè)，圖表集

參考例句：

He reached down the atlas from the top shelf.他從書架頂層取下地圖集。

The atlas contains forty maps,including three of Great Britain.這本地圖集有40幅地圖，其中包括3幅英國(guó)地圖。

3 tune NmnwW

n.調(diào)子；和諧，協(xié)調(diào)；v.調(diào)音，調(diào)節(jié)，調(diào)整

參考例句：

He'd written a tune,and played it to us on the piano.他寫了一段曲子，并在鋼琴上彈給我們聽(tīng)。

The boy beat out a tune on a tin can.那男孩在易拉罐上敲出一首曲子。

4 sleepless oiBzGN

adj.不睡眠的，睡不著的，不休息的

參考例句：

The situation gave her many sleepless nights.這種情況害她一連好多天睡不好覺(jué)。

One evening I heard a tale that rendered me sleepless for nights.一天晚上，我聽(tīng)說(shuō)了一個(gè)傳聞，把我搞得一連幾夜都不能入睡。

5 petals f346ae24f5b5778ae3e2317a33cd8d9b

n.花瓣( petal的名詞復(fù)數(shù) )

參考例句：

white petals tinged with blue 略帶藍(lán)色的白花瓣

The petals of many flowers expand in the sunshine. 許多花瓣在陽(yáng)光下開(kāi)放。 來(lái)自《現(xiàn)代英漢綜合大詞典》

6 admiration afpyA

n.欽佩，贊美，羨慕

參考例句：

He was lost in admiration of the beauty of the scene.他對(duì)風(fēng)景之美贊不絕口。

We have a great admiration for the gold medalists.我們對(duì)金牌獲得者極為敬佩。

7 sniff PF7zs

vi.嗅…味道；抽鼻涕；對(duì)嗤之以鼻，蔑視

參考例句：

The police used dogs to sniff out the criminals in their hiding - place.警察使用警犬查出了罪犯的藏身地點(diǎn)。

When Munchie meets a dog on the beach, they sniff each other for a while.當(dāng)麥奇在海灘上碰到另一條狗的時(shí)候，他們會(huì)彼此嗅一會(huì)兒。

8 dodge q83yo

v.閃開(kāi)，躲開(kāi)，避開(kāi)；n.妙計(jì)，詭計(jì)

參考例句：

A dodge behind a tree kept her from being run over.她向樹(shù)后一閃，才沒(méi)被車從身上輾過(guò)。

The dodge was coopered by the police.詭計(jì)被警察粉碎了。

9 justifiably ap9zrc

adv.無(wú)可非議地

參考例句：

There General Walters would come aboard to greet me, justifiably beaming with pride at his arrangement. 在那兒沃爾特斯將軍會(huì)登上飛機(jī)來(lái)接我，理所當(dāng)然為他們的安排感到洋洋得意。 來(lái)自辭典例句

The Chinese seemed justifiably proud of their economic achievements. 中國(guó)人似乎為他們的經(jīng)濟(jì)成就感到自豪，這是無(wú)可非議的。 來(lái)自互聯(lián)網(wǎng)

10 adversaries 5e3df56a80cf841a3387bd9fd1360a22

n.對(duì)手，敵手( adversary的名詞復(fù)數(shù) )

參考例句：

That would cause potential adversaries to recoil from a challenge. 這會(huì)迫使?jié)撛诘臄橙嗽谔魬?zhàn)面前退縮。 來(lái)自辭典例句

Every adversaries are more comfortable with a predictable, coherent America. 就連敵人也會(huì)因有可以預(yù)料的，始終一致的美國(guó)而感到舒服得多。 來(lái)自辭典例句

11 descended guQzoy

a.為...后裔的，出身于...的

參考例句：

A mood of melancholy descended on us. 一種悲傷的情緒襲上我們的心頭。

The path descended the hill in a series of zigzags. 小路呈連續(xù)的之字形順著山坡蜿蜒而下。

12 lieutenant X3GyG

n.陸軍中尉，海軍上尉；代理官員，副職官員

參考例句：

He was promoted to be a lieutenant in the army.他被提升為陸軍中尉。

He prevailed on the lieutenant to send in a short note.他說(shuō)動(dòng)那個(gè)副官，遞上了一張簡(jiǎn)短的便條進(jìn)去。

13 bankruptcy fPoyJ

n.破產(chǎn)；無(wú)償付能力

參考例句：

You will have to pull in if you want to escape bankruptcy.如果你想避免破產(chǎn)，就必須節(jié)省開(kāi)支。

His firm is just on thin ice of bankruptcy.他的商號(hào)正面臨破產(chǎn)的危險(xiǎn)。

14 pointed Il8zB4

adj.尖的，直截了當(dāng)?shù)?/P>

參考例句：

He gave me a very sharp pointed pencil.他給我一支削得非常尖的鉛筆。

She wished to show Mrs.John Dashwood by this pointed invitation to her brother.她想通過(guò)對(duì)達(dá)茨伍德夫人提出直截了當(dāng)?shù)难?qǐng)向她的哥哥表示出來(lái)。

15 tremors 266b933e7f9df8a51b0b0795733d1e93

震顫( tremor的名詞復(fù)數(shù) )； 戰(zhàn)栗； 震顫聲； 大地的輕微震動(dòng)

參考例句：

The story was so terrible that It'sent tremors down my spine. 這故事太可怕，它使我不寒而栗。

The story was so terrible that it sent tremors down my spine. 這故事太可怕，它使我不寒而栗。

16 foresight Wi3xm

n.先見(jiàn)之明，深謀遠(yuǎn)慮

參考例句：

The failure is the result of our lack of foresight.這次失敗是由于我們?nèi)狈h(yuǎn)慮而造成的。

It required a statesman's foresight and sagacity to make the decision.作出這個(gè)決定需要政治家的遠(yuǎn)見(jiàn)卓識(shí)。

17 auto ZOnyW

n.(=automobile)(口語(yǔ))汽車

參考例句：

Don't park your auto here.別把你的汽車停在這兒。

The auto industry has brought many people to Detroit.汽車工業(yè)把許多人吸引到了底特律。

18 petroleum WiUyi

n.原油，石油

參考例句：

The Government of Iran advanced the price of petroleum last week.上星期伊朗政府提高了石油價(jià)格。

The purpose of oil refinery is to refine crude petroleum.煉油廠的主要工作是提煉原油。

19 depleting ae23633b1a5c6c21ae0d93b205d84331

使大大的減少，使空虛( deplete的現(xiàn)在分詞 )； 耗盡，使枯竭

參考例句：

Regulations are outlawing certain refrigerants, such as chlorofluorocarbons, which contain ozone-depleting chemicals. 隨后出臺(tái)的政策禁用了部分制冷劑，如破壞臭氧層的氟氯碳化合物。

Aging, being a series of continual losses, can be keenly depleting. 老齡化，作為一個(gè)系列的連續(xù)虧損，可以清楚地消耗。

20 scrambling cfea7454c3a8813b07de2178a1025138

v.快速爬行( scramble的現(xiàn)在分詞 )；攀登；爭(zhēng)奪；（軍事飛機(jī)）緊急起飛

參考例句：

Scrambling up her hair, she darted out of the house. 她匆忙扎起頭發(fā)，沖出房去。 來(lái)自《現(xiàn)代英漢綜合大詞典》

She is scrambling eggs. 她正在炒蛋。 來(lái)自《簡(jiǎn)明英漢詞典》

21 liberated YpRzMi

a.無(wú)拘束的，放縱的

參考例句：

The city was liberated by the advancing army. 軍隊(duì)向前挺進(jìn)，解放了那座城市。

The heat brings about a chemical reaction, and oxygen is liberated. 熱量引起化學(xué)反應(yīng)，釋放出氧氣。

22 attained 1f2c1bee274e81555decf78fe9b16b2f

（通常經(jīng)過(guò)努力）實(shí)現(xiàn)( attain的過(guò)去式和過(guò)去分詞 )； 達(dá)到； 獲得； 達(dá)到（某年齡、水平、狀況）

參考例句：

She has attained the degree of Master of Arts. 她已獲得文學(xué)碩士學(xué)位。

Lu Hsun attained a high position in the republic of letters. 魯迅在文壇上獲得崇高的地位。

23 volition cLkzS

n.意志；決意

參考例句：

We like to think that everything we do and everything we think is a product of our volition.我們常常認(rèn)為我們所做和所想的一切都出自自己的意愿。

Makin said Mr Coombes had gone to the police of his own volition.梅金說(shuō)庫(kù)姆斯先生是主動(dòng)去投案的。

24 helping 2rGzDc

n.食物的一份&adj.幫助人的，輔助的

參考例句：

The poor children regularly pony up for a second helping of my hamburger. 那些可憐的孩子們總是要求我把我的漢堡包再給他們一份。

By doing this, they may at times be helping to restore competition. 這樣一來(lái), 他在某些時(shí)候,有助于競(jìng)爭(zhēng)的加強(qiáng)。

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